Finishing Materials--DESIGN DEVELOPMENT--Home/Apartment Renovations

A vast range of materials qualify as interior finishes. Walls can be plastered, wood-paneled, tiled in marble, or carpeted. Similarly, floors can be covered with anything from brick to rubber. In essence, when it comes to finishing materials al most anything goes. Of course, most of us will have to take into account cost, ease of installation, and functional criteria such as maintenance.

When you select a finish for a part of the house, you must consider the type of activity that will take place in that area and determine the suitability of the material for that use. Many materials that are suitable for one use might fail if subjected to other uses. More than one homeowner has carpeted his kitchen with indoor-outdoor carpet only to discover that although the carpet is tough, it's also extremely vulnerable to stains.

Our discussion of finishes is limited to what we consider the bare essentials. New products are constantly being introduced, each with its virtues and problems. We suggest that you consult Sweet’s Catalogue, which can be found in many public libraries. It is an excellent source of information on any new building product.

CERAMIC TILE

The heading of ceramic tile covers a vast range of tile types, the most familiar being the glazed tile used on bathroom floors and walls. Ceramic tile is made out of clay that has been fired in a kiln at very high temperatures. It is an excellent material as far as maintenance is concerned since it's water-resistant and nearly impossible to stain. Its color does not fade and it's hard, tough, and durable. The tiles themselves are very easy to clean. The grout between them, however, can be a cleaning problem if the wrong type is used. Care must be taken to select the right grout for the job; for example, kitchen applications should have grout that's not adversely affected by kitchen grease.

There are two problems with ceramic tile. The first is its cost. As a finish for walls, it's more expensive than resilient tile or gypsum board and paint; when it's used as a floor finish, the rein forced underlayment required often costs more than the tile itself. The second is its installation. Tiles are bonded with adhesive or cement mortar to the wall or subfloor surface. While the placing of the tile on the mortar or adhesive bed is easy, the trimming required to get around openings and fittings (all the piping around the bathroom sink) can be difficult. Unless you have mastered the art of tile cutting, you may spend a lot of time piecing together the remains of shattered tiles. In addition, tile needs a very strong non-resilient surface. The best installations are on “mud,” which is 1” or 1 1/2” of Portland cement concrete reinforced with metal mesh applied on top of ¾” plywood or a concrete slab.

Ceramic tile is available glazed and unglazed. Glazed tile is the one most commonly seen in bathrooms, kitchens, and other wet locations. It has a face of ceramic material, which may be glossy, semi-matte, or crystalline. Glazed tiles manufactured domestically generally are avail able in 4 1/2” X 4 1/2” and 1” X 1” or 2” X 2” squares (mosaic tiles). Various trimming tiles are available for edge and cove conditions. Mexican tiles (which are subject to chipping) and unglazed quarry tile are very porous and must be treated with an appropriate sealant or waxed frequently to prevent staining.

Imported ceramic tile comes in an assortment of sizes, patterns, and colors. The most typical sizes are about 6” X 6”, 5” x 10”, and 8” X 8” (13 X 13 cm, 20 X 20 cm, etc.), but there is little standardization with these imports. Some of the tiles are made to look like granite in an assortment of colors and some are exquisitely hand-painted in both abstract and traditional patterns. There are also a whole variety of beautiful ceramic trim pieces that can be used with ceramic tile. Be advised, however, when selecting tiles that most of the imported designer tiles don't come with the necessary trim pieces to turn corners. The tile will have to be installed using mitered edges at the corners, a skill that only experienced tile installers have. Furthermore, specialized tiles—for soap dishes, toothbrush holders, toilet-paper dispensers—are almost never available to match imported tiles.

There are so many beautiful designer tiles available that it's difficult to make a selection. Keep in mind that ceramic tiles last almost forever and the bathroom you install today may be the one you have to live with until you either die or sell the house. When selecting tile, be restrained. Don’t choose too many patterns and colors to go into one bathroom. Try not to select very fashion able colors. The modish peach-and-maroon bath room installed in one of the authors’ childhood home in the 1940’s was considered ghastly in the 1950’s and 1960’s. Only in the 1980’s, when this combination again became fashionable, did the bathroom look au courant.

One more admonition: Try to stick to the same tile module for the whole bathroom. If you are using 5” X 10” tiles on the wall, use the same size or 5” X 5” tiles (if this size is available in the series) on the floor. You can use a floor tile on the walls if you wish, but don't use a wall tile on the floor. The wall tile may not be strong enough for floor use or may be too smooth. A highly glossy tile on the floor may become very slippery when wet. You need not choose one tile for the floor and another for the walls. Use the tiles innovatively by taking the floor tile up one wall and applying a coordinating tile on the other three wall surfaces. Similarly, the floor tile can also be used to cover the bathtub platform and the countertop of the lavatory.

Ceramic tile can be used on the kitchen floor and on the counter and /or backsplash. We suggest that you stick to tiles made for countertops if you are considering installing a tile counter. Most domestic brands designed for counter installations feature specialized tiles, such as drip edges and exaggerated corners, which make the counter look and perform better.

A number of materials are used as tile grout. Latex—Portland cement is generally recommended since it's somewhat crack- and stain-resistant and comes in a variety of colors. Silicone and urethane grouts are more stain- and crack-resist ant but aren't available in all colors and aren't recommended as grout for quarry tiles or brick payers. In any case, a dark grout will look better over the years than one of a lighter color.

MARBLE and GRANITE

Stone is a beautiful material all around. Types of stone used for flooring include limestone, granite, slate, and marble. Stone floors are used where a durable and attractive material is required. Keep in mind, however, that some stone is easily stained. Another important consideration is its weight. Although the stone used for flooring is cut into very thin tile, it still manages to add up to a substantial weight. Before selecting this material, make sure that the floor system can take the load of the stone flooring.

There are two additional disadvantages to the use of stone: the difficulty of installing it and its high cost. Stone, like ceramic tile, is easy to lay on the mortar bed. Cutting the stone to fit, however, is a demanding and precise job.

Marble is beautiful, hard, and strong and can be used on interior walls or floors. Marble floors should be periodically waxed and used in areas not subject to scratching or acidic action. Marble is available in large slabs that can be used on walls or countertops and in tiles that are generally used for floor applications. Travertine is less dense than marble and has small holes that must be filled with epoxy before the stone is polished. Both are available in 6” X 6” and 12” X 12” sizes. Limestone is available in tiles as well and has a rough, rugged look. One of the advantages of limestone is that the tiles may be used outside as well as for interiors. This allows you to use the same material for a living room and the terrace that it opens onto. Granite, the most durable of the stones, is also available in tiles 12” X 12” and 8” X 8”. Granite tiles are available polished or textured, and are about ‘/4” to ½” thick. Polished granite is almost indestructible and can be used for interior and exterior applications. Flamed granite isn't polished and has a rough texture. Since it's porous, it should be sealed. Honed granite has a satin texture that's less glossy than polished granite. Latex—Portland cement grout is often recommended for marble and stone tiles. Larger tiles (2’ X 2’ or 2’ X 4’) can be used on wall surfaces if anchored properly.

BRICK

Brick is always an interesting addition to the house. Many a renovator has spent long and painful hours chipping away at the plastered walls to get at the brick wall beneath. The result is well worth the effort. For floors, don’t use too porous a brick such as common brick. It isn't very durable and will produce a chalky dust as it wears down. Paving brick is a much better choice. With brick as with stone, be cautious of the heavy loads you are putting on the existing structural system and be sure you reinforce the subfloor for brick and other non-resilient flooring materials.

RESILIENT FLOORING

Resilient flooring materials are thin coverings made of various combinations of resins, plasticizers, and fibers in addition to other components. The composition is formed under heat and pres sure. This type of flooring is applied to the sub- floor with mastic cements and is available in tile or sheet form. Although resilient flooring isn't as durable or as easy to maintain as ceramic tile, it's easier to install and lower in cost. In addition, a resilient floor is more comfortable underfoot and reduces noise. The types of resilient flooring available include vinyl, vinyl composition tile, rubber, and linoleum. The tiles are generally 9” X 9” or 12” X 12” squares. The sheets range in width from 36” to 72”. The installation of this type of flooring varies with the location of the floor (above or below grade) and the composition of the subfloor (wood or concrete). Because the material is adversely affected by moisture conditions, the selection of resilient flooring and the adhesive must be carefully researched. Consult your dealer for recommendations.

Genuine linoleum is made from linseed oil, wood dust, cork, and resins, but is no longer manufactured in the United States on a commercial basis. Imported linoleum comes in rolls about 6’/2’ wide or in square tiles. Linoleum has excellent resistance to grease and abrasion. It performs poorly, however, when too much water or alkali detergents are used on it. The constant use of water and strong detergents removes the oil con tent in the linoleum and causes it to become hard, brittle, and subject to tearing. Vinyl sheeting is often made to look like linoleum, mimicking the old styles and patterns.

Sheet vinyl can be purchased as tiles or in rolls up to 12’ wide. Vinyl is very resilient and is highly resistant to abrasion. It is durable and performs well under grease, alkali, and water conditions. Vinyl comes in solid colors and in a number of patterns. Since heel marks show on vinyl flooring and can be a cleaning chore, the multicolored designs and “splattered” patterns are recommended for hiding dirt in heavily trafficked areas. These patterns, although practical, may have a commercial or institutional look and have to be used judiciously.

Solid vinyl tiles are popularly used as residential flooring in the kitchen as well as almost any other room in the house. Alternating a white solid-color vinyl tile with a very dark tile in a checkerboard pattern is a classic installation. Some vinyl tiles are made to look like slate or quarry tile or to resemble brick payers.

Generally, the more expensive commercial sheets and vinyl tiles are durable. We don't recommend products with only a thin veneer of vinyl over the base material or cushioned flooring. We have found that these products, although inexpensive, don't stand up to kitchen traffic and have to be replaced after a few years.

Vinyl composition tile (VCT) is made of vinyl resins and a variety of fillers. It is relatively low in cost and is used in a number of different commercial installations. VCT can be applied over a concrete slab on or below grade and is resistant to alkalis and grease. This flooring material comes in a variety of sizes and patterns, including tiles that are made to look like ceramic tile, granite, marble, or brick.

Resilient rubber flooring, which has a high- tech look, is durable and offers good resistance to water. It performs well against stains, grease, alkali detergents, and abrasions. Of all the resilient floors, it's probably easiest on the feet and legs and absorbs the most noise. Most rubber flooring comes with raised patterns of dots or squares in a variety of colors, but these projections make the floor more difficult to clean than a smooth floor. The flooring comes in tile-size sheets about 20” X 20”. The floor is meant to look seamless but we have found that the seams show after a few years.

CARPETING

Wall-to-wall carpeting has been around for a long time and for good reason. The installation of carpeting directly over plywood subflooring was discovered long ago by housing developers wishing to save themselves the cost of installing the more expensive hardwood flooring. Carpeting does have advantages over other flooring, especially in bedrooms, in that it's both soft and warm on bare feet. In addition, carpeting imparts a feeling of warmth to even the most formally furnished rooms.

Broadlooms, as opposed to area rugs which have a specific design made to fit their rectangular shape, come in many different textures, weights, colors, and qualities. Some are very dense and high-piled, resembling manicured lawns. Others are dense, short, and smooth, resembling velvet. At the opposite end of the spectrum are the Berbers, which look knitted or mat-like. It is important to remember that no carpet, whether of natural or man-made fiber, is made to last forever. All of them will eventually wear down and are susceptible to staining. When selecting carpeting, choose a carpet that you like but one that's suit able for its purpose. A dense low-pile carpet of contract grade is recommended for a young child’s room. (Building blocks don’t stand up on high-pile carpet.) Choose a very dense carpet for stairs. A high-pile carpet that's not dense will tend to mat down in a few years, especially in heavy traffic areas. It isn't recommended at all. Very light-colored carpet shows dirt and will have to be cleaned periodically; very dark carpet shows dust and lint and has to be vacuumed often. Carpet that has been designed to be applied to walls has the advantage of absorbing sound in the room as well as adding a soft texture to the space.

WOOD

Wood floors have traditionally been constructed out of hardwood because of its durability and resistance to wear and tear. Oak has always been and still is a favorite for flooring, but maple, birch, beech, and pecan are also used, among others. Many turn-of-the-century buildings exhibit beautiful oak floors that not only are still in excel lent condition but will most likely last for a long time to come.

Wood flooring falls into several types: strip, plank, block, parquet, and acrylic-impregnated.

Strip flooring is one of the most commonly used wood floors. It consists of wood strips ranging in width from 1 1/2” to 2 1/2” and about 3/4” thick. The length depends on the available pieces. These strips are blind-nailed to the subfloor in tongue-and-groove fashion every 10” to 12”. The lengthwise joints are staggered.

Plank flooring is made up of wood planks of varying widths. Some may be as narrow as 4” or less and others as wide as 12”. Some wood plank systems presently available may be applied to the subfloor by means of mastic or adhesive or may be blind-nailed. Check Sweet’s Catalogue.

Block and parquet flooring has traditionally been more difficult to construct than either strip or plank flooring. Parquet floors, in particular, required a painstaking amount of work. Thin pieces of hardwood were cut and secured to the subfloor piece by piece, forming an intricate design. (Victorian houses exhibit some of the most extravagant parquet floors.) Fortunately, there are presently available parquet blocks that may be applied as easily as vinyl tile. These parquet blocks come in squares ranging anywhere from 6” X 6” to 19” X 19”, and there is a wide range of patterns and types of woods. The blocks are applied in mastic directly to wood or concrete subfloors. (It is inadvisable to apply wood flooring directly on a concrete slab on grade. Changing moisture conditions may damage the floor by causing the wood to swell and buckle.)

Acrylic-impregnated wood flooring consists of 12” X 12” X ” or 2” X 12” X 5/8” strips of solid oak with acrylic and stain forced through the entire thickness of the wood. A special factory-applied process is used to harden the acrylic, resulting in a wood floor designed to be very stain- and wear-resistant. The manufacturers recommend this flooring for heavy-traffic areas. A related product, actually more of a vinyl floor than a wood floor, sandwiches a thin veneer of real wood between two sheets of vinyl, the top vinyl layer being clear. This type of flooring is highly water-resistant and is recommended for kitchens where a wood “look” is desired. Natural cork is available in a similar vinyl product.

Wood can be applied to walls as single wood boards or large plywood panels. The advantage of the wood board over the plywood sheet is its rich texture, which is difficult to match in a highly manufactured product such as plywood. Boards are easier to install in areas with many openings, since they are easier to cut than large sheets. In addition, they give you greater design flexibility.

E.g., you may install the boards vertically or diagonally, or you may use different-size boards to add further interest.

Plywood panels don't offer such versatility. The advantage of plywood for the amateur is that the installation of the panels is quicker than that of single boards (unless you have a surface with a multitude of openings and notches). Plywood panels are available in interior and exterior grades. They are generally 4’ wide and vary in length (8’ panels are the most commonly used). Another advantage of plywood is its availability in a variety of exotic woods. Plywood is constructed of a number of thin veneers of scrap wood held together by glue. The outer face of the panel is covered with a paper-thin slice of fine wood. Because of the thinness of this surface veneer, expensive and rare woods can be used at small cost.

You must be aware when buying plywood paneling that not everything that looks like wood is necessarily so. Some of the wood look-alikes are plywood panels covered with vinyl printed with a wood grain. Although the vinyl surface is durable, it does not offer the richness of wood.

One problem with plywood paneling is the horizontal joint. Because panels come in lengths of generally no more than 12’, there is a joining problem if the wall surface is any higher than the maximum length of the panel. If you are planning to use plywood paneling, it may be a good idea to inquire about the lengths that the panel comes in while you are still in the design stages.

Raised solid-wood paneling, as found in many old houses built for the wealthy, is mostly custom-made and very expensive. In raised paneling the solid-wood sheets are milled around the edges to create the raised panel, and matching milled trim pieces are placed over the joints between panels. A simulated old-fashioned paneled effect may be created by applying matching wood trim to flush plywood panels in decorative pat terns. The effect can be striking if painted. Note, however, that this type of paneling never looks like the real thing.

PLASTER and GYPSUM BOARD

Traditionally, walls and ceilings have been finished with lath and plaster. Although plaster pro vides a beautiful texture, it has the serious drawback of being very difficult to apply. If you are renovating a room that's finished in plaster, you may have to hire a professional plasterer to repair the existing walls. If the renovation work is extensive or you don’t want to hire a plasterer, much of the new work can be done in gypsum board. If properly done, the new gypsum-board partition and the old plaster wall will be almost indistinguishable.

In most old buildings plaster was applied to lath (thin strips of wood nailed to wood framing with small spaces between the strips to allow keying of the plaster). Today, lath is made either of expanded metal (thin sheets of steel that are slit and stretched to produce openings) or preformed gypsum board (sheets of hardened gypsum covered with absorbent paper to which fresh plaster adheres). Plaster is applied in three coats. The first, called the scratch coat, is troweled onto the lath and then scratched while still wet to create a rough surface to receive the next coat of plaster. The second coat, called the brown coat, strengthens the plaster and presents a smooth surface for the final coat. The finish coat is very thin, about 1/16” thick, and can be troweled smooth or textured. Although all three coats may be applied over gypsum lath, the scratch coat can be dispensed with since the gypsum board provides the rigidity the metal lath lacks.

In a very old house, the plaster walls may be cracked and mottled. It is sometimes difficult to determine whether the cracking is beyond repair or easily fixed. If there are just a few cracks caused by the initial settling of the building or other structural trauma, they can be patched with a mixture of spackling compound and gypsum plaster applied in very thin coats after the cracks have been widened and all loose plaster removed. Sometimes, however, the cracking is caused by the continuing disintegration of the original lath. If this is the case, your spackling repairs may not be permanent. These walls may have to be covered in gypsum board.

The alternative to plaster is gypsum board (also known as Sheetrock, one of its trade names). Gypsum board, like plaster, is used for walls and ceilings. It is a sandwich panel manufactured from powdered gypsum mixed with water and other ingredients which are shaped to form a wide, flat panel. This panel is then covered on both sides with a tough paper. The resulting product is both dense and durable and is resistant to fire and noise. Gypsum board is installed by screwing the panels to the structural studs. The joints between the panels are concealed with tape and spackle to create a smooth, seamless wall. The taping and spackling of the joints is rather tedious and generally requires skill and experience for a smooth job.

Unlike plaster, it can't be left without an applied finish. Because of the joint work between the panels, gypsum board has to be covered with paint, wall coverings, tile, or other finish. The main advantage of gypsum board over plaster is its relative ease and quickness of installation, both of which make it very appealing to the amateur home renovator. It comes in 4’-wide sheets and the lengths vary from 6’ to 16’, but it's very difficult to purchase anything other than 8’ lengths. The thicknesses range from 3/5” to ¾”. Standard (½”-thick) gypsum board is the most commonly used for residential construction. For a firmer, sounder partition we recommend the use of ¾” gypsum board, which is heavier than the 1/2” panels. (The thinner panels are fine for ceilings.) Some home builders elect to install a layer of 1/2” gypsum board onto a 1/2” backer board on each side of the studs. Although it's more expensive and time-consuming to install this double layer of gypsum board, the 1/2” panels are easier to lift than the ¾” ones.

There are a few different types of gypsum board to meet special requirements. E.g., standard gypsum board can't be installed in areas subject to wetness or on the exterior of buildings. Special moisture-resistant boards are available for use in such areas—for example, bathrooms and kitchens. Another type of board is the backer board, intended for use as a backing material where a double layer of gypsum board is called for. Also available is fire-rated gypsum board, designed for situations where the wall must resist fire penetration for one or more hours. Although not always required by law, we recommend using fire-rated gypsum board around fireplaces, in the garage, and in the mechanical room.

Gypsum board comes with different edge conditions to suit various functions. The edges can be square, beveled, V-shaped, round, or tongue- and -groove. The square-edge board is the most widely used. The edges may also be tapered to provide a smoother and stronger joint. Where different pieces of board meet to form an outside corner, a bead is installed. Beads are metal angles that can be nailed at the corners, giving you a precise right angle.

Tile backer board is used instead of gypsum board in wet areas such as the walls around showers and bathtubs. Known by various non-generic names such as Wonderboard and Duroc, it's basically a thin mixture of Portland cement reinforced with vinyl-coated glass fiber mesh fashioned into ½”-thick boards. The cement panels are more resistant to water than moisture-resistant gypsum board and are often used as a substitute for a “mud” (reinforced cement) base for walls that are to receive ceramic tile. Most tile backer board is fire-resistant, comes in various panel sizes, and is recommended only for interior use unless other wise indicated by the manufacturer.

Paint

Of the applied finishes, paint is by far the most popular. Paints have been developed and improved in the last few years to cover a vast range of applications. They are essentially divided into two types: latex (water-based paints) and alkyds (oil-based paints). Latex paints are preferred by nonprofessional painters because of their ease of application, quick drying time, little odor, and easy cleanup (with soap and water). They are available in different finishes: fiat, satin (egg shell), semi-gloss, and glossy. The choice of finishes is dependent on the usage of the surface. E.g., in a kitchen, where you may be scrubbing down walls periodically, a semi-gloss or glossy finish will stand up better than a flat one. Flat finishes tend to show marks if abrasive cleansers are used. Keep in mind that the glossier the paint, the more imperfections the surface will show.

Alkyd paints are no longer the hassle they used to be. The new ones are easy to handle. Many of them are advertised as dripless because of their heavier consistency.

Alkyds generally take longer to dry than latex paints and have more of a smell. They are avail able in the same colors and finishes as latex. Their main advantages over latex paints are their better performance under heavy scrubbing and their tendency not to absorb dirt. Thus oil-based paint is a popular choice in kitchens, in bathrooms, on windowsills, etc.

Both latex and alkyd paints have corresponding primer-sealers. Priming the surface before painting is necessary when the surface is being painted for the first time. The purpose of the primer-sealer is to penetrate and seal the pores of the material and make it ready to receive paint. Primers go on easily and are quick-drying; one coat is usually sufficient. The exceptions are instances where the surface is extremely porous—for ex ample, concrete block.

There is a wealth of paints designed for special applications, such as epoxy enamels for use on surfaces requiring a particularly tough finish, aluminum paints used to inhibit rust, masonry paint specifically designed for use on extremely porous surfaces, and deck and floor enamels.

A recent style in decorating is to make new rooms look old and old rooms look ancient. This trend toward romantic classicism has revitalized some long forgotten painting techniques which can make common gypsum board and plaster look like distressed limestone or aging marble. Most of these effects are achieved by applying one or more paint colors, which have been thinned, over a different-colored background.

“Glazing” is the application of a number of thin layers of paint over a base coat of ordinary paint. The use of several levels of a lighter shade of glaze over a slightly darker undercoat creates a depth of color and a subtle sheen.

“Sponging” is the application of a thinned glaze of paint over a solid-colored background using a natural sponge instead of a brush. When the first layer dries, another layer of a different color is sponged on. This may be followed by still another layer. For depth of color, the first color applied is darker than the subsequent colors. If a soft blending of color is the object, the various levels of glaze are sponged on before the level below is completely dry. Sponging can be accomplished using oil or latex paint. The oil paint gives a crispier look, while the latex paint creates a somewhat softer, more leathery look.

“Stippling” is very similar to sponging in that one thin layer of glaze is applied over a dry base coat of paint of another color and texture. The difference is that the stippling pattern is created by the partial removal of the second coat of paint while it's still wet, partially revealing the base coat. Stippling, which simulates the texture of lemon peel, can be done with a special stippling brush, a sponge, or a sawed-off broom. “Dragging” or “combing” is very similar to stippling except that the pattern is created by combing the still wet second coat with a stiff brush to create long, woodlike grains.

“Ragging” also begins with a dry undercoat of one color and a very thin glaze of another color on top of it. In ragging, the top coat is textured with the use of a crumpled rag which both removes and reapplies the paint at the same time. The result is a little like marble.

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