Carpentry tools
Building a new house or remodeling an existing one is done in steps. This book deals with the last of these steps-the one that comes after the rough framing is completed; the wiring, plumbing, and heating are roughed in; and the doors, windows, siding, and roofing are in place. In finish carpentry tight joints, clean miters, excellent materials, and smooth surfaces are essential. Although slight inaccuracies and flawed lumber are acceptable in rough carpentry, the success of all the projects in this book depends on working carefully, having patience, taking your time, and choosing materials wisely.
Careful planning is equally important. So before you forge ahead, take the time to read through the information presented in this chapter.
-------- Here are just a few of the tools used in the progression from
rough framing to finish carpentry.
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PLANNING AND SCHEDULING
It is often said that finish carpentry-the final 10 percent of the job-takes as long as all the rest of the job put together. This is largely due to the attention to detail and the exactness that finish work requires. It also calls for accurate information and adequate instruction. Here is what you'll need to know about planning and scheduling-the first steps in finish carpentry.
Stages of Construction
It is important to be familiar not only with finish carpentry but also with all the steps that precede it, since they some times overlap. The stages of construction are listed in the order in which they are usually undertaken.
1. Planning. Deciding what to do and how to do it and acquiring the necessary permits
2. Rough carpentry. Laying the foundation and erecting the basic framework
3. Exterior finish carpentry.
Cladding the Exterior frame work with finish materials, in stalling windows and Exterior doors, building exterior stair ways and railings, and installing exterior trim
4. Plumbing and wiring.
Running lines to all points where power, water, and drain pipes will be needed
5. Heating and cooling. In stalling the systems necessary to keep the house comfortable the year around
6. Insulation. Placing batts or rigid insulation in the roof, walls, and floors; making the structure energy efficient
7. Interior finish carpentry.
Putting up ceilings and walls, laying floors, building interior stairways and railings, installing cabinets and shelves, and applying Interior trim and moldings
8. Decorating. Painting, carpeting, furnishing, and adding the final touches that transform the structure into the home you envisioned
Planning
Successfully completed jobs begin with thoughtful planning; yours will be no exception.
Planning is the most important element of a construction project. No amount of adjustment after the fact will make up for a poorly planned job.
Your strategies should be based on a firm grasp of what jobs are to be done and when they must be finished. For example, it is best to complete the exterior of the dwelling be fore proceeding with the interior, to avoid the construction delays and potential damage to materials that are inevitable with inclement weather. The Exterior trim is installed before or after the siding, depending on the type of siding chosen.
Interior trim, cabinets, and stairs are installed after other interior construction has been completed. The sequence of activities should be considered at the outset, in order to dovetail each job into the flow of work and achieve maximum efficiency. Once you understand how all the elements in the sequence are interrelated, you will be able to formulate an efficient plan.
Scheduling
Following the correct sequence in any building project is essential for several reasons.
. Building codes demand that inspectors check various aspects of the job. They can make you tear out work if you have proceeded without verification.
. Work that is being subcontracted must be carefully scheduled in order to be time- and cost-effective.
. Poor planning could necessitate dismantling work in order to install items that were overlooked.
. If all the materials that you need aren’t on hand, progress can be halted for days, or even weeks, while you wait for deliveries. (Large quantities of lumber as well as manufactured doors, windows, and cabinets should be ordered well ahead of time.)
. Materials can be damaged during construction, so the most visible work should be done last.
Sequence of Events Finish carpentry starts only after the basic carpentry or remodeling is complete, including everything on the following list.
. Solid foundation
. Girders, sills, and floor joists in place
. Clean, smooth subfloor
. Framework for all doors and windows
. Ceiling joists in place
. Framing, sheathing, and roofing installed
. Stairs roughed in
. Boxes for all switches and outlets nailed to studs
. Outlets for ceiling fixtures nailed to joists
. Gas or electric hookup for oven and cooktop
. Officially approved and inspected wiring
. Officially approved and inspected plumbing lines
. Heating and cooling systems installed and ready for hookup
. Windows and Exterior doors in place
. Fully insulated roof, ceilings, floors, and walls
. Effective moisture barrier
.Siding installed
. Floors installed
. Interior doors installed
Review these checklists and the information on the next four pages carefully. If any of the listed items is missing, install it before you proceed.
Otherwise you risk having to tear out work so that an inspector can approve the work that is underneath.
Next, draw up the materials takeoffs and correct any flaws in the structure. Takeoffs--lists of materials that can be taken off architectural drawings--let you know what supplies are needed for the job and how much they cost, so you can order them efficiently. A sample floor plan and an ac companying materials takeoff appear on pages 12 and 13.
For a professional-looking job, it is important to correct any flaws that were created in the rough-framing stage before you start the finish work. Door and window openings may not be true; walls may have framing members that need to be straightened. The various corrective measures are addressed at the appropriate points in the following chapters.
Doing It Yourself
"I want to save money" and "Carpentry is my hobby" are the two most common reasons given by people who under take their own finish work. But there are other reasons that you may not have considered.
. Many houses are built by con tractors and developers on speculation ( "on spec").
In order to sell the houses as quickly as possible, the builder aims to appeal to broad rather than specific tastes, and nothing un usual is included.
. If you are a gourmet cook, a sound-conscious audiophile, or a collector of porcelain figurines, you may have particular needs that require expensive custom work.
. Ensuring that a home is convenient and comfortable for a person with special needs, such as mobility or sight impairment, poses very particular problems. You know best what specific features are necessary.
. A contracted carpenter will probably not care as much about your home as you do. If you are a perfectionist or a stickler for detail, you are often better off doing the finish work yourself.
Cost
Just how much money can you save by doing your own finish carpentry? It depends on the following variables.
. Cost of local labor
. Cost of supplies in your area
. Size of the project
. Amount of time allotted to complete the project
. Your competence as a finish carpenter
. Difficulty of the job
. Site conditions
The cost of materials and labor varies greatly with the area and with the job site. Materials costs vary from one sup plier to the next. Retailers pay fairly consistent wholesale prices; the difference in mark up is due mostly to freight costs and local marketing strategies.
The best way to economize is to use materials grown or produced in your area.
Some materials are more labor-intensive than others. For example, relative costs for trim might be approximately 40 cents per linear foot for labor if materials cost 60 cents per linear foot; plywood paneling may be 80 cents per square foot for labor if materials are 75 cents per square foot; and wall board may be 55 cents per square foot if materials are 15 cents per square foot.
Safety Tips
Keep the following suggestions in mind to help the job proceed safely and efficiently.
. Always have a first-aid kit handy at the site, and know how to use it.
. Don’t undertake potentially dangerous tasks when working alone at an isolated site.
. Never operate power tools in wet weather or near water.
. Always tuck in loose clothing and tie back long hair, and remove all jewelry when working with hand or power tools.
. Don’t risk injuring your back by overestimating the amount of weight you can lift. Remember to lift with your legs, not with your back.
. Wear safety goggles when using a high-speed power tool, or any tool you must raise above your head.
. Wear a particle dust mask and an approved respirator when in contact with airborne materials or toxic chemicals.
. Take your time. Most accidents are the result of taking shortcuts or of not setting up properly.
. Keep the guards on all power equipment. Removing them for convenience could severely in jure you.
. Maintain an electrical ground on all power equipment cords.
. Maintain sharp blades on all saws. Dull blades can cause accidents. Keep all blades set at their proper heights.
. Work at a comfortable pace. The potential for injury in creases dramatically when you work too fast. (Production is usually more efficient at a reasonable speed, too.)
. Don't work when you are tired or distracted. You’re more accident-prone at these times.
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A PICTORIAL INDEX
Although your house may not look anything like the one pictured here, it probably contains most of the same elements. Each one either is listed in the index of this book or is covered at length in Ortho's Home Improvement Encyclopedia.
1. Roof. The roofing should be in place.
2. Windows. The windows should be in place.
3. Fixed-pane windows.
4. Exterior window and door trim. Whether the trim goes on before or after the siding depends on the choice of siding material. For when to install window trim and how to mea sure, cut, and nail it in place, see page 48. For door trim, see page 52.
5. Doors. The doors should be in place.
6. Siding. The siding should be in place.
7. Vents. Attic, basement, and crawl space vents should be in place.
8. Friezes, cornices, and soffits.
These make the framing weathertight and add decorative detail. Depending on the amount of overhang, they can also provide shelter while you fumble for keys at the door. See page 53.
9. Gutters and downspouts.
A drainage system should al ready exist. However, you need gutters and downspouts to carry the water from the roof to a storm drain. For how to in stall them, see page 57.
10. Garage doors. How to trim a garage door is shown on page 52.
11. Exterior stairs and railings. A well-illustrated discussion starts on page 58.
12. Ceilings. Various styles of ceilings and ceiling coverings are discussed in the section that starts on page 65.
13. Wall surfaces. For the most common options board and sheet paneling and wallboard-see the discussion that starts on page 67.
14. Flooring. The floors should be in place. Installing baseboard is discussed on page 104.
15. Closets. For how to finish traditional, contemporary, multi-purpose, and specific-use closets, see page 79.
16. Wall cabinets. See page 82 for instructions on how to make and install your own wall cabinets, and how to install manufactured units.
17. Base cabinets. It is not difficult to make your own base units. Instructions on how to install these and manufactured units are given on page 84.
18. Countertops. For a discussion on countertops, see Ortho's Home Improvement Encyclopedia.
19. Shelves. See page 91 for various methods of mounting shelves.
20. Interior window and door trim. For instructions on measuring, cutting, and installing window trim, see page 95. For door trim see page 99.
21. Interior stairs and railings. For a discussion of interior stairs, railings, balusters, and stair trim, see page 93.
22. Moldings. Whether you use manufactured moldings or shape your own, the method of installation is the same. For information on ceiling trim, picture rails, chair rails, and baseboard, see the section that starts on page 100.
23. Electric cover plates. There’s nothing complicated about attaching these.
24. Fireplace mantel and surround. This trim can either be purchased or be made up of pieces of molding assembled in your workshop and then attached in place. See page 106.
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THE BASIC SYSTEMS
Make sure that the following systems are in place before you begin finish carpentry. Even people who consider themselves competent carpenters often elect to hire professionals for this work. If you do it yourself, make sure that the local building codes don't specify that the work must be done by certified professionals.
Heating And Cooling
The less easily manipulated elements of the basic systems should be installed first. For example, since it is easier to route an electrical wire around a heating duct or a water pipe than vice versa, the ducts and pipes should be installed first.
Route the ducts as directly as possible from the furnace to the registers to obtain maximum heating efficiency. If you are putting in a hot-water, steam, or gas heating system, install the heating pipes at the same time as the plumbing pipes.
With electric heat you should install the wiring at the same time as the rest of the house wiring. A cooling system should also be installed and ready to hook up before you apply the finish walls.
Plumbing
In walls with plumbing you should have 2 by 6 studs instead of the usual 2 by 4s, because the studs must be notched to accommodate the pipes. The local building codes will specify how to treat these notches, but keep in mind that you cannot cut completely through a stud, and also that it is good practice to reinforce the stud after installing pipes in a cutout. You can cut away up to one third of the thickness of a stud. If you cut away two thirds to install the pipe in the middle of the stud (a good way to avoid condensation damage to the wall), you will have to replace and secure the outer third of the stud.
A metal strip should be nailed over the notch to pre vent nails from piercing the pipe. If joists are notched for pipes, you can cut no more than one fourth of the thick ness of the joist, leaving at least 2 inches of solid wood along the top and bottom edges. Use hangers and braces to support the weight of the plumbing, vent pipes, air chambers, and so on. If the plans call for a built-in bathtub, install it and hook it into the plumbing now.
Protect it from damage during construction by leaving on as much shipping material as possible. If a one-piece plastic bathtub enclosure is to be in stalled, it must be moved into position before the interior walls are completely framed.
In some locales with a severe fire hazard, sprinkler systems may be required in dwellings.
These must be in place prior to close-in inspections.
Wiring
Studs drilled to accommodate electrical wiring need not be reinforced, even if they are standard 2 by 4s. The code re quires that holes be drilled as close to the center of the studs as possible. If a hole must be drilled close to the edge of a stud, a metal protection plate should be installed where the wiring passes through the stud.
Whether you use plastic cable, spiral armored cable, or thin-wall conduit, install it and connect it to the boxes now.
Don’t forget that the wiring for the doorbell and the electric burglar and fire alarm systems should be installed as part of the basic wiring. Locate the boxes according to the approved plans, but do not install the switch plates, plugs, or fixtures until after the finish wall surface has been applied. At tach all boxes securely so that you don’t end up with wobbly switches and plugs. Nail each box directly to a stud through the top or side flange. If a box must be installed between studs, secure it with an adjust able strap or with supports made for this purpose.
Never do any electrical work unless the circuit is dead.
If in doubt, shut off the entire system. When you turn the power back on, check for live or dead circuits using a circuit tester; a small bulb, attached to two probes, lights up if the wire is hot. To test wiring runs, switches, and the like for short circuits and other wiring flaws, use a continuity tester--an in expensive device that runs off a battery and saves a good deal of fretting. This device should be used only on wires that are not carrying power.
In residential construction it is currently common practice to install telephone, cable TV, ire and burglar alarms, and speaker wires before applying the interior wallcoverings. The installations may be done by the companies providing the service, or in some instances by the owner. If any of these ser vices are included in your project, contact the appropriate agency for particulars.
Insulation
Although you may be eager to install the finish walls so that the house will start to look livable, there is one more major job to do first-installing insulation. This must be done be fore the interior walls go in but after the heating, rough plumbing, and wiring are complete; the insulation must it snugly around these elements to be effective. (Remember that a close-in inspection must be done before the insulation can be installed.)
Insulation should always be installed as close to the heated space as possible. This way the furnace isn't heating unused space. For example, if you have an unheated attic, place the insulation between the ceiling joists of the space to be heated rather than between the roof rafters.
A vapor barrier on the warm side of the insulation keeps condensation from forming. Some insulation already has a vapor barrier. If the one you use does not, install an impervious paper or plastic film over the insulation. Attach the barrier to the studs, covering all of your previous work, including the plumbing and wiring. It is a good idea to stretch the vapor barrier right over the door and window openings to ensure a snug it.
Cut away this extra material when you are ready to install the doors and windows. (In some climates vapor barriers are not commonly used, so check with the local building department for guidelines.)
----------- Typical Plumbing Framing support for wall-hung sink Protection
plates Sink drain stub -2X6 studs Vent Soil stack and cold water supply
Typical Wiring U:
Boxes must extend the thickness of the finish wallcovering beyond surface of stud.
If hole for wiring is farther forward than center of stud, cable must be protected with metal plate
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Energy-Saving
Devices
Anyone building a home nowadays should consider installing energy-saving devices.
Some that you may want to include are listed below.
. Insulation in the attic, basement, and garage.
. A small air-lock anteroom for heavy-traffic areas that lead outside-back doors used by children, for example. This anteroom can also serve as a mud room and a place to store boots and raincoats.
. Exterior awnings, to reduce summer heat on the sunny sides of the house. (They should be folded back or removed during the winter.)
. Interior shades and blinds.
. Fans to cool the attic in the summer, as well as fans throughout the house to re place or supplement air conditioning.
. Siding and insulation enclosing the outside of the fireplace and the chimney to reduce conduction heat loss.
. Ceramic-tile flooring to act as a solar-collection mass.
. Solar-collection panels that are hooked up to the water supply.
. A greenhouse collector in a south-facing window or door opening. The greenhouse can be purchased as a kit or you can design and build your own.
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MATERIALS TAKEOFFS
Before you can order materials, you must be able to determine how much of each one is required. This is done by drawing up lists called takeoffs.
----- Materials Takeoff List for Room Addition
Since the cost of finish materials is relatively high, it is wise to calculate the amounts you will need as accurately as possible. It also helps to visualize the completed details of each job, which makes for more efficient ordering and less waste.
Materials takeoffs (see illustration) can be generated by taking off the required amounts from the architectural drawings, or by measuring at the job site, or both. If the drawings truly reflect the actual construction, you can determine the various lengths of materials quickly by using an architect’s scale, a ruler that allows you to measure actual dimensions directly on the drawing. It is advisable to visit the job site with tape measure in hand, to verify the figures on the drawings and to take dimensions that are difficult to determine accurately from the drawings. Some lumber and millwork companies will do the takeoffs for you from your plans and provide you with a list and a quote on the price of materials.
In finish carpentry, materials are divided into two categories: those that are ordered and installed in random lengths, such as baseboard, chair rail, picture rail, and crown molding-and those that are ordered in specific lengths for a particular application, such as door and window casings, wainscoting frames, shelves, stair treads, and railings.
Materials in random, or running, lengths are ordered and delivered to the job site in whatever lengths are available.
For example, baseboard stock, ordered in random lengths, may arrive at the site in sections varying from 4 to 16 feet.
The total count, say 450 linear feet, would come from the sum of all the individual room measurements using that type of baseboard, plus about 10 percent to allow for waste and errors in cutting.
Materials ordered in specific, or standing, lengths are installed at the particular locations for which they are ordered. In this instance, you would order exterior door casings as follows. For a standard door height of 6 feet 8 inches, the side casing material is 7 feet long and the head casing approximately 3 feet long. The sum of these lengths is 17 feet.
Noting that the material is sold in multiples of 2 feet, you would order an 18-foot length.
From this installation you would have about 1 foot of waste material.
This method works primarily for exterior door (and window) casings. The drawback for ordering interior door casings is that 18-foot lengths of interior casing are often special order items, so the savings in waste may be more than offset by the premium price of the material. A better method, with less waste, for interior door and window casings is as follows.
For doors, order three 14-foot lengths of casing and you will get four 7-foot side casings and two 3-foot head casings, enough for both sides of one door, with one 7-foot side casing left over for the next door.
This reduces the waste to less than 1 foot per door. If the casings aren’t available in 14-foot lengths, two 10-foot lengths and two 8-foot lengths will do, although this will yield two 1-foot sections of waste material per door.
When ordering other finish carpentry materials, such as shelves and closet poles, stair treads, risers, and railings, a method similar to standing length is used to calculate the amounts. The length of each item is determined and then multiplied by the number of those items. For example, if you have six shelves to install and each is to be 2 feet 6 inches long, 6 X 2M’ feet = 15 feet.
Order a 16-foot piece of shelf stock, or one 10-foot piece and one 6-foot piece.
When ordering wallboard and paneling, you must calculate areas to determine the amounts. Calculations for wall board are done as follows. Measure the widths, lengths, and heights of the wall and ceiling surfaces. Multiply these to obtain the area of each surface.
Sum up the surface areas to find the total area. Divide this total by the area of one sheet to determine the total number of sheets required.
For example, let’s say a room is 20 feet long and 16 feet wide, with an 8-foot ceiling.
Two walls are 20 feet long; 2 X 20 feet = 40 feet.
Two walls are 16 feet long; 2 X 16 feet = 32 feet.
Adding these together gives 72 feet.
Multiplying by the height-8 feet-gives 576 square feet of wall surface.
The ceiling is 20 feet by 16 feet, for 320 square feet of ceiling surface. Adding 576 square feet to 320 square feet gives a total area of 896 square feet.
Dividing this by 32 square feet (the area of a 4 by 8 sheet of wallboard) gives 28. This is the number of sheets to purchase.
Do not reduce the total area by the areas of the door and window openings, unless these openings are 8 feet or more in height (the length of a sheet of wallboard). You may reduce the total area for the floor-to ceiling openings between rooms. Add a couple of sheets to the count for botched cuts and breakage.
Professional installers often use 4 by 12 sheets of wallboard to speed up the job. If you choose to do that too, your factor for dividing total square footage will be 48 (4 X 12) rather than 32. A helpful hint:
Do not attempt to install 12 foot sheets by yourself.
Calculations for 4 by 8 paneling are done sheet by sheet.
This is because ceilings are not usually paneled, and because paneling, unlike wallboard, is usually used in only one or two rooms of a house. So, for example, if a room measures 20 feet by 16 feet, the total length for four walls is 72 feet. Dividing this by 4 feet (the width of a sheet of paneling) gives 18.
This is the number of sheets to purchase, assuming that the height of the room is 8 feet. As with wallboard, reduce the number of sheets only if there are large openings.
--------- Floor Plan for Room Addition
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Board paneling is usually sold in packages that will cover a given area, such as 32 square feet. If the height of the room is 8 feet, the contents of the latter package will cover 4 linear feet of wall. The material in the package may vary in length from 1 foot to 8 feet, so if you must install nailing surfaces (called cleats) before applying the paneling, remember to determine the proper spacing for the cleats. Be sure to order about 10 percent extra material to allow for waste and errors.
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CHOOSING THE MATERIALS
The right materials for the job ensure both permanence and economy. The choice is easier if you study the charts showing the characteristics of the various materials ( see pages 17 to 21), and if you familiarize yourself with the illustrations showing how lumber is cut and graded ( see pages 15 and 16).
Sources of Information
A wide variety of materials is used in finish carpentry.
Knowing the useful characteristics of each will pay hand some dividends. Choosing the right materials, like choosing the right tool, makes any job easier and more satisfying. In addition, knowing the characteristics of the various materials will help you to achieve the look you want in any finished project, whether it’s soffits un der the eaves or fine cabinets in the kitchen. By shopping carefully you can select materials that are cost efficient, durable, attractive, and easy to maintain.
Apart from the charts and information given in this chapter, there are other sources that you can turn to for help.
Make use of the local library. Because do-it-yourself projects are so popular, even small libraries stock a good se lection of reference books. Look through them and make a list of titles that might be worth buying for your own library.
Home-building magazines are a gold mine of information and ideas. Study the advertisements as well as the articles.
Many contain coupons for catalogs and brochures, some of which are quite lavish. They are usually offered free or for a nominal charge.
Check the stores in your area, not only for materials but also for ready-made products that will save time. For example, staircases can be ordered to your specifications. If you need a railing for a porch or balcony, look for stores that carry a variety of decorative balusters. Ornamental moldings come in styles that range from simple plastic cove strips to elaborate turned-wood caps.
When you find a good store, try to establish a relationship with the sales staff. In most stores these people are very knowledgeable, and you can save time and mistakes by en listing their aid. Don’t be afraid to ask questions. As long as you don’t arrive on a busy Saturday morning, these professionals will usually be happy to help.
If they aren’t, shop elsewhere.
Maintaining Architectural Style
The style of a house, whether Cape Cod, Georgian, or modern, is emphasized by the finish carpentry. The trim, doors, and windows give a house its character. In most instances, the style is dictated by the architectural drawings, leaving little or no latitude for spontaneous creative expression during the finish phase. If you have some flexibility in the se lection of materials, however, consider the options carefully.
It is important to maintain an overall look that is harmonious and aesthetically pleasing and is in keeping with the intent of the design.
Non-wood Trim
Many materials besides wood are used to make trim; they include plastic, resin, rubber, metal, and vinyl.
Plastic trim, a high-density polystyrene or polyurethane foam, is manufactured in various shapes, from simple straight pieces, such as base boards, corners, casings, and chair and picture rails, to complex architectural elements, such as pilasters, mantels, and pediments. The materials cost for some designs may be higher than it would be for wood trim, but this cost is usually more than offset by the savings in labor. Plastic trim is easily cut, it, and nailed, dramatically reducing production and installation time. Some styles don't even have to be painted.
Also available are lightweight moldings made from a flexible resin; they can be used in places where conventional wood trim cannot be easily bent to it. These moldings are expensive, but they may be the most practical solution to a difficult installation problem.
Some non-wood base trim is made of rubber or vinyl. It is used primarily with sheet vinyl or vinyl tile finish floors. Trim pieces made of vinyl are avail able for finishing exterior vinyl siding installations. They come in a variety of shapes and styles.
Metal trim is occasionally used in exterior applications.
Most commonly it is installed at outside corners when the house is finished with a type of wood siding known as bevel.
This closes off the board ends to the weather, which minimizes deterioration.
Selecting Wood
Mill and lumberyard personnel have a language all their own.
Knowing the correct terminology eliminates costly mistakes when ordering, and it cuts down on your shopping time.
Dimensioned lumber is 2 or more inches thick (nominal). It is used for ordinary framing, and it includes the ubiquitous 2 by 4 as well as 2 by 6, 2 by 8, and 4-by number. Timber is lumber 5 by 5 and larger. It is used for heavy framing-in car decks, for example. Board lumber is less than 2 inches thick.
It is not structurally strong enough to be used for framing.
Along with plywood and milled wood products it is used for sheathing, siding, subfloors, casings, and trim. The most common board lumber is 1 inch (actually 3/8 inch) thick and 2 to 12 inches wide.
From Trees to Lumber At the sawmill logs are cut into lumber or veneer by one of three methods. (See illustration on page 16.)
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Grain Direction Slash cut Lumber Stacking Lumber 1 X 2 stickers (or scrap) Miscellaneous Stock Hook strip (pine)
Stair tread (Douglas fir)
Shell stock (#2 pine)
Cleat (pine) Closet pole ( Douglas fir)
Flaws in Lumber
Checks Shakes Splits Plywood-Grading Stamp Grade of face veneer
Grade of back veneer
Product standard
Mill governed by manufacturer
American Plywood Association trademark
Certifying agency
Lumber-Grading Stamps
Mill Species (one usually circled to indicate spruce, pine, or fir)
Grade
Cupped Bowed Crooked NH & PMA Certifying agency
Moisture content BALSAM
FIR \ Species
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-------------- Plain-Sowed Lumber Quarter-Sawed Lumber Cutting Veneer
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Plain Sawed
Most construction-grade (dimension) lumber used for studs, joists, and rafters is plain sawed. This method is the fastest, and it produces relatively little waste, so the lumber is usually inexpensive. The slash cuts (see illustration on page 15) produce boards with surfaces unsuited to finish work, because the pronounced grain fissures show as marbling or as dark U or oval shapes. Plain sawed lumber is also more prone to warping than quarter sawed lumber.
Quarter Sawed
These boards are produced by rift cuts--that is, the annual rings of the log run perpendicular to the cut surface. This gives the board a finer grain than is possible with plain sawed lumber. It also exposes the denser summerwood rings more evenly across the surface, so the wood is more durable.
Because this method wastes more of the original log, quarter-sawed lumber is more expensive than plain-sawed lumber, but it is the better choice in finish carpentry, where appearance and durability are important.
Veneer Most veneers are produced by mounting a log on a huge lathe-like machine and shaving off a thin slice of the outer surface as the log spins. As the shaver blade moves toward the axis of the log, it produces a thin, continuous sheet. Some veneers are plain sawed or quarter sawed, however, to create special grain effects. Most veneers are used in the manufacture of laminated wood products, such as wood paneling and plywood; unlaminated veneers made of fine woods are used in cabinetmaking.
Moisture Content
Woods used for finish carpentry should contain 19 percent or less of moisture. This figure corresponds to the standard grade called S-DRY. Moisture content is particularly important if you live in a dry climate, because wood shrinks as it loses moisture. For very exacting finish carpentry, select wood that is graded MC-15 (15 percent or less moisture con tent). For cabinetwork and furniture making, select wood that is graded MC-10 or MC-12.
Quality
Be on the lookout for defects.
As wood seasons, a small split can widen into an unsightly blemish. Products such as moldings and window casings are made of select wood. If you buy un-milled stock and do your own shaping, make sure that it is of good quality.
When ordering large quantities of lumber, see if you can buy a percentage lot. This is construction-grade lumber with some appearance-grade lumber mixed in. You have to sort out the higher-grade boards yourself, but you stand to save substantially on the wood that you ultimately use for trim.
Stacking and Storing
Wood that is to be used for finish work should be stored flat. Stack the material off the ground in a dry area. Short lengths of 1 by 2 make ideal supports. (Lumberyards call them stickers.) Set the supports close enough together so that the boards do not sag. Every few layers place more stickers crosswise to stabilize the stack and allow air to circulate.
Choosing Wood Species
Selecting the right wood for a particular job is part of design and planning. Know what materials are available in your area before you start to build.
Check with local suppliers regarding availability, ordering time, and cost. Not all lumber yards carry unusual species of wood. Check the yellow pages to find specialty suppliers in your area. The chart on page 17 rates a number of common hardwoods and softwoods used in finish carpentry.-Consult one of the many books on wood for further information.
Hardness and Strength
The terms hardwood and soft wood are confusing since they do not indicate the actual hard ness and softness of a wood.
Yellow pine, for example, is a softwood that is actually harder than mahogany, which is classified as a hardwood. The term hardwood refers largely to deciduous trees, which lose their leaves in the fall; the term softwood refers to coniferous trees, such as pines, which retain their leaves (needles) the year around.
Stair treads and flooring, which must withstand heavy use, are usually made of hard woods, such as oak and maple.
Some softwoods, however, such as Douglas fir in quarter sawn form, and yellow pine, are hard enough and strong enough to be acceptable.
Handrails, balusters, and built-in furniture, which must be able to support weight and withstand years of wear, are often made of hardwood. Soft wood is often used for vertical surfaces that do not suffer heavy wear, such as board siding and trim.
Cutting Quality
The fibers of woods with a spongy texture or very large pores will collapse and deform as the wood is cut. This produces a cut with a rough end grain and many bent or broken fibers. Using appropriate and sharp tools improves the quality of cuts in any wood.
Planing Quality Even grain planes the most smoothly. Porous hardwoods and soft woods with uneven grain are the most difficult to plane. Always work in the up hill direction. See illustration on page 36, bottom.
Gluing Quality
Most woods can be joined successfully with any one of a variety of glues. Very dense close-grained hardwoods, uneven porous woods, and oily woods are more difficult to glue than softwoods and even grained woods.
Stain or Paint?
Certain woods, when treated with stain, have a deep, rich color and a well-defined grain.
These woods should be stained rather than painted. Other woods may also be stained, however. Do not use varnish, which has an oil base, over an oil-based stain, because the stain will dissolve, lift, and cloud the varnish. Instead use shellac or lacquer.
For smooth painted surfaces, prepare open-pored woods with a filler. On all woods, sand well and apply a sealer or primer before painting.
Selecting Materials
Listed in the following charts are many of the materials commonly used in finish carpentry.
Although the store or the lumberyard should be able to answer your questions, shopping will be easier if you make some preliminary decisions. These should be based on aesthetic considerations, permanence, and ease of installation.
--------------- Woods for Finish Carpentry Wood Species Hardness
Strength Cutting Quality Planing Quality Gluing Quality Stain Recommended
Suitable for Painting?
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Ordering Materials
Material Stock Item? Comments
Cabinets Lumber Mantel and fireplace surround Moldings Staircases Wallboard Seldom Yes Some
Some No Yes Order custom cabinets from a local cabinetmaker, home-improvement center, or manufacturer’s representative.
Availability varies. Check on stock, especially for large orders.
Some home-improvement centers carry mantels or will order them for you (delivery times vary). Local cabinetmakers or carpenters will custom-build. (Ask to see samples of their work before ordering.) A good selection of softwood moldings is available at most lumberyards. Many lumberyards now also stock a variety of hardwood and non-wood moldings. For hardwood moldings and/or special designs, check hardwood outlets in your area. Look in magazines for manufacturers who specialize in moldings or order from local millwork shops or cabinet makers.
Some home-improvement centers will order a staircase for you (delivery times vary). Local cabinetmakers or carpenters will custom-build. (Ask to see samples of their work before ordering.) Although standard and waterproof panels are readily available, decorative ones must usually be ordered.
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Sandpaper
Type Indication ol Grades Uses Comments
Type Flint Garnet Aluminum oxide Indication ol Grades
0000 = very fine, 0 = medium, 3 = very coarse 400 = superfine, 220 = very fine, 80 = medium 600 = superfine, 220 = very fine, 80 = medium Uses Removing finishes
Sanding wood Sanding wood, metal, and plastics Comments Inexpensive paper but clogs easily.
Requires frequent replacement.
Pinkish orange in color. Cuts better than flint and lasts up to 5 times longer.
Very long lasting. Available in sheet, belt, and disk form. "
------------------- Sometimes the backing on the sandpaper is as important as the sandpaper itself.
------------------- Grade of Backing
Backing Material Comments
Grade of Backing | Backing Material | Comments
A Lightweight paper Backs fine-grit sandpapers. Good for sanding molded or carved surfaces, because it bends easily.
C,
D Medium-weight papers Also called cabinet papers, these back medium-grit sandpapers. Use C for curved surfaces and D for flat work.
J Lightweight cloth
Better than paper for wet sanding. Use on curved, shaped, or flat surfaces.
X Medium-weight cloth Use for heavy-duty sanding on flat or curved surfaces. Also available as belts and disks for power sanding tools.
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Materials for Finish Carpentry
Material Type Description Uses
Abrasives Adhesives Caulks Paper backed Cloth backed Grinding wheels Hide glue Powdered casein White polyvinyl resin glue Contact cement Mastic cement Resorcinol Epoxy Yellow aliphatic resin glue Poly-vinyl acetate (PVA) latex Siliconized acrylic latex Silicone rubber Polyurethane Block copolymer rubber Available in sheets, belts, or disks, with lint (quick to dull), garnet (general-grade), and aluminum oxide (high-grade) abrasives.
Stronger backing than paper on the same abrasives as above. Suitable for wet sanding.
For general sharpening use a 60-grit aluminum oxide medium-grade wheel. Set speed at 5,000 to 6,000 surface feet per minute (circumference of wheel in feet X RPM = surface feet per minute).
Granules must be dissolved in warm water and glue kept warm while using. Glue pots and brushes are available for this purpose.
Mix 15 minutes before using. Glue is somewhat water-resistant.
This water-based white glue is inexpensive. It sets quickly and dries clear but is not waterproof. Widely available in squeeze bottles. Clamp work while glue sets.
A flammable and noxious solvent. Coat both surfaces to be joined, then let the cement dry (approximately 10 minutes); material will bond on contact.
Clamping is not necessary. Contact cement is water resistant.
This puttylike adhesive is available in cans (spread with a trowel) or cartridges (apply with a caulking gun). Some but not all mastics are waterproof.
A catalyst (two-component) glue for use in high moisture situations.
A catalyst glue especially well suited to join wood to other materials.
Slower setting and more heat resistant than white polyvinyl resin glue.
Paintable, relatively inflexible material with poor adhesion. Not waterproof. Economical. Water used for cleanup.
Paintable, flexible material with good adhesion.
Generally water-resistant on vertical surfaces.
Moderately long lasting. Moderately priced.
Water used for cleanup.
Non-paintable, flexible material with good adhesion.
Waterproof on vertical surfaces. Very long lasting.
Good for extreme temperature range. Expensive. Ill Trichloroethane or paint thinner used for cleanup.
Paintable, flexible material with excellent adhesion.
Waterproof under all conditions. Excellent durability. Critical disadvantage: poor shelf life. Moderate to high cost. Ill Trichloroethane or paint thinner used for cleanup.
Paintable, flexible material with excellent adhesion.
Waterproof on vertical surfaces. Moderately long lasting. Expensive. Ill Trichloroethane or paint thinner used for cleanup.
Surfacing ( see page 35 for specifics)
Sharpening tools
Gluing joints and veneers
Gluing oily woods, such as teak and yew
Multipurpose Bonding veneers and laminates Adhering materials to vertical and horizontal surfaces Kitchen and bathroom cabinet construction, outdoor projects Adhering wood to glass or metal General-purpose glue Filling gaps and cracks on interior surfaces Filling gaps and cracks and sealing joints on interior and exterior surfaces Weatherproofing and sealing joints on exterior surfaces Sealing joints and filling gaps on exterior surfaces where moisture exposure is high Weather-proofing and sealing joints on exterior surfaces
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Materials for Finish Carpentry (continued) Material Type Description Uses
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Fillers Finishes Lumber Liquid Oil-based heavy liquid. Thin with turpentine, tint as needed with powdered colors (mixed first with linseed oil). Paint on with a brush, scrub off with burlap (rub across the grain), sand when dry.
Paste * Oil-based paste either natural or tinted. Thin with turpentine. Additive available to speed drying time.
Trowel filler onto wood, scrape off excess, rub across grain with burlap, sand when dry.
Oil paint Any of various opaque pigments suspended in linseed oil or, more commonly, alkyd resin. Al though flat finishes are available, oil-based paint is mostly used where a gloss finish is required. Clean applicators with turpentine or mineral spirits.
Latex paint Synthetic rubber (latex) particles suspended in a water base. Less expensive than oil paint. Clean applicators with water.
Varnish
Varnish is oil paint without the pigments. The type of resin used determines the properties of the varnish. Polyurethane is recommended for most uses; it can be brushed or sprayed on and dries clear and hard. Check labels on different varnishes for proper ties that meet your specific requirements. Clean applicators with mineral spirits.
Shellac Fast-drying clear finish. Use orange shellac over dark or stained wood; white shellac over light wood.
Several coats produce a high-gloss finish, which can be dulled by rubbing with steel wool. Clean applicators with ammonia and water or alcohol.
Lacquer Moderately fast drying clear finish. Highly flammable. Dries very hard; resists water, stain, and chemicals. Clean applicators with ammonia and water, or alcohol.
Sealer Oil-based or water-based substance used to ill and seal wood grain, usually before hard-finish material is applied. Clean applicators with turpentine or mineral spirits (oil-based sealer) or water (water based sealer).
Wax Melted mixture of beeswax and paraffin, or similar but solidified commercial mixture, which protects wood surfaces. Can be discolored by some sub stances, so hard-finish material is advised.
Stain Oil-based stain is a suitable exterior finish and preservative for natural wood siding. Water-based stain is used to darken and color interior wood.
Apply to clean, unfinished wood.
Board Nominally 1 inch thick (actually 3/8 inch). Ranges from 2 to 12 inches wide in 2-inch increments.
Available up to 16 feet long. Grades are: select, appearance, construction, standard, utility, and economy. (Surfaced on all 4 sides = S4S.) Dimension Lumber up to 5 inches thick and from 2 to 12 inches wide. Same grading system as for board lumber.
Small-pored woods, such as birch, maple, and cherry
Large-pored woods, such as oak, mahogany, and ash Painting trim and kitchen and bathroom walls General painting Finishing water-based-stained wood floors and cabinets Finishing oil- or water-based-stained wood floors and cabinets Finishing sealed and unstained cabinets Sealing cabinets and flooring; pre vents stains and knots from bleeding through finish; makes sanding easier Finishing cabinets and other Interior wood surfaces Protecting and coloring wood Shelving, subfloors, trim Framing, closet and cabinet construction
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Material Type Description Uses
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Molding Paneling Board Sheet Plywood Interior Veneers Wallboard Exterior Lumber core Wood Plastic laminate Gypsum Wood products Hardboard Particleboard and waferboard (low-grade) Particleboard (laminated) Usually made of clear pine, although hardwood moldings are available. Different suppliers carry different ranges, so check around for a complete selection or order from specialty suppliers.
Usually applied vertically. Available in various widths with tongue-and-groove edges. Face can be smooth or V-grooved.
4 by 8 panels with a veneered (often hardwood) face. The large variety of styles includes smooth, textured, or grooved surfaces. Use %-inch panels directly over studs; M-inch panels over backer board. Edges are butted (cover seams with battens) or lapped.
Usually all softwood. 4 by 8 panels range from 0.25 inch to IV* inches thick and have from 3 to 7 plies.
The quality and finish of the outer plies determine the grade: A (best), D (worst). (A-C plywood = grade A on one side, grade C on the other. N = hardwood faced.) Edges are squared, ship-lapped, or tongue and groove.
Faced with either smooth veneer (grades A through D) or rough sawn. Sometimes the face is grooved for appearance (T-lll). Edges can be squared, ship-lapped, or tongue and groove.
Usually an appearance-grade (N) plywood. Core consists of edge-glued strips of wood.
Softwoods and hardwoods available in sheets, strips, rolls, and thin edging strips. Edging strips are sometimes adhesive backed.
A long-wearing material that is heat and stain resistant. Available in panels 4 feet wide and up to 10 feet long, in many colors with gloss or matte finishes.
Sheets are 4 feet wide and up to 16 feet long (8 feet is standard). The gypsum core is sandwiched be tween layers of paper. Both standard and waterproof versions usually have tapered edges, although beveled, round, square, and tongue-and-groove edges are also available.
Common thicknesses are 0.25, 3/8, 0.5, 5/8 (standard), and 3/4 inch.
Pulverized mill waste compressed into 4 by 8 sheets 1/8 inch to 3/8 inch thick. Known as pegboard when surfaced with holes.
Wood chips compressed into 4 by 8 sheets 0.25 inch to 1.5 inches thick. Light tan in color. Quality depends on density.
High-pressure, laminate-coated particleboard.
Scratch and stain resistant. Available from 1 1/4 inch to 1 inch thick. Stock colors are white and tan; other colors can be special-ordered.
Baseboard, ceiling molding, picture rail, chair rail, door and window casing, stools, sills, aprons Finish walls Finish walls Finish walls, cabinets, cabinet doors Siding, exterior trim Cabinetwork Finish surfaces Kitchen and bathroom countertops Wallcovering Cabinet backs Cabinet construction, underlayment for countertops and finish floors Cabinet and draw construction
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