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WINDOWS Windows can be a major part of a house or apartment renovation project. Some renovators will limit their window changes to the removal of the old windows and the installation of new ones in the same rough openings. You may be considering replacing your old windows for a number of very valid reasons: your single-glazed windows are losing too much heat and you wish to replace them with double-glazed units with special glazing, your existing wooden sash has rotted beyond repair, your windows have been painted so many times that they are glued shut, or the wood of the existing frames and sashes has shrunk, allowing cold air to infiltrate between the broad cracks. Aside from these practical considerations, you may decide to replace or relocate windows for purely aesthetic reasons. You may not care for the style of the existing window, preferring a casement to double-hung window or French doors to those of sliding glass. It may be that the existing windows are poorly located, offering you an exceptional view of the storage shed from your chair near the fire but requiring you to stretch your head out the window to see your duck pond. Or the existing windows are so small that you can see only a fraction of the potential view, and what’s more, the room does not get enough natural light. If you live in an urban apartment house, it may be difficult or impossible to enlarge a preexisting window or to install a window where there was none before. Some of the difficulties stem from the ownership of the building. If you live in a condominium or a cooperative building, the board of directors probably has jurisdiction over the exterior aesthetics of the building and may not allow you to install a window that does not conform to its guidelines. In addition, many municipal building codes impose restrictions on the size and the location of windows. Some municipalities mandate a minimum window size for reasons of ventilation, while at the same time insisting on a maximum allowable size for reasons of energy conservation. Some codes require that each room have at least some windows that are operable even if there is adequate mechanical ventilation and that the operable part of the window open wide enough to permit an adult to escape in case of fire. Many codes don't allow the placement of windows on a property-line wall (other than the street elevation). Be sure to check your municipality’s codes, the local energy laws, and your building’s bylaws before planning to replace, enlarge, reduce, relocate, or eliminate your existing windows. Another factor that may discourage you from enlarging an existing window opening or penetrating a blank wall is the cost of the project, which will entail the expense of restructuring the surrounding wood-frame or masonry wall. As we have mentioned before, it's relatively easy to lengthen an existing window opening by removing material beneath the sill. Widening a window in a wood-frame building requires removing and replacing the lintel (the wood member that supports the frame above the window) as well as the vertical supports on either side of the opening. Similarly, the wood or steel lintel over an opening in a masonry wall must be replaced if a wider window is to be installed. Both cases may call for delicate construction maneuvers, including the temporary jacking of the upper portion of the building while the lintels are being replaced. With these pros and cons on window relocation in mind, we will offer some hints on the placement and selection of windows. First determine what you wish to look out at (or, conversely, what you wish to avoid seeing). Next determine the placement of furniture in the room. Be sure to make the windows big enough and low enough so that when you are sitting you can see more than the sky; also make sure the window extends high enough so that you can see out when you are standing up. If you want to allow light into the room but don't wish to look into your next-door neighbors’ window, you can purposely place windows high on the wall. Although these factors may seem obvious, they are often overlooked in both renovation and house design. In addition, when designing a wall of windows, be careful not to locate the mullions (the vertical or horizontal separations between sections of glass) where they will block the view. A grave error of this kind was made by the renovators of a summer house facing a spectacular bay view. They replaced some small double-hung windows with a wall of windows that combined three non-operable fixed windows with three awning windows below. When a person is seated on the couch that faces the bay, his view is bisected by the horizontal mullion, which, unfortunately, coincides with the horizon line where sea meets sky. The window renovation might have been handled better if the ventilation windows were positioned above the fixed panes, or if two long casement windows were placed at the sides of one or more floor-to-ceiling fixed windows. Since windows offer such great design opportunities, you may be tempted to remove whole walls (and even the roof of the house) and replace these areas with glazing. Be sure to temper your light obsession with the realities of climate and the knowledge that glass loses heat at a much faster rate than an insulated exterior wall. Replacing lost heat is very costly and you should keep this in mind when determining the sizes of windows and skylights. Insulating Glass Because glass loses heat at such a rapid rate, a great deal of research has gone into producing a window that limits the heat loss without obstructing visibility. The result is a double-glazed window unit that's mass-marketed under a number of trade names. Essentially, the unit contains two thicknesses of sheet glass separated by an air space. The space between the sheets of glass is dehydrated and then sealed. The drying out of the air in the space prevents the development of condensate that would obstruct visibility. Many manufacturers include a third sheet of glass, a storm sash, but this added protection does not cut the heat loss by a proportionate amount. Another way to reduce the heat loss through glass is by the use of insulated curtains or shutters which are closed at night or when the room isn't in use. A new glazing option is being marketed under a number of names, such as low-E glass. An invisible metallic coating is used that provides greater energy efficiency. This glazing option is particularly effective for those people in hot climates who want to restrict the radiant heat entering the window without reducing light. Most window manufacturers combine this new glazing feature with the insulating value of double-paned glazing. Window-Frame Materials Residential window frames come in three basic materials: wood, plastic-coated wood, and metal: The plain wooden windows (made of ponderosa pine) are the most commonly used. Wood is a very fine insulator, and so the wooden windows are weathertight as well as handsome. The only disadvantage of this moderately expensive frame is that it must be maintained. A redwood frame may be stained and creosoted with the rest of the house or it may be painted. The stock pine windows, however, are usually painted, but can be left untreated on the interior. In most climates the trim (the exterior side of the window frames) will need treatment only once every four or five years. Houses located near salt water will require more frequent care. Some wooden windows are manufactured with the exposed wood sections sealed with a rigid vinyl or metal covering. In addition to eliminating “sticking” windows, this coating ends the need to paint the frame and sash. Although these windows are higher in price than the plain wooden frames, the extra cost might be justified in some climates. Metal windows don't require painting. They also don't have the tendency of wooden windows to swell with moisture in the summer and stick in their frames. Metal in itself is a great conductor of heat, and solid-metal frames lose a great deal of heat through conductivity. There are many metal windows on the market, however, that offer excellent insulation. The hollow metal frames are filled with rigid insulation and are weatherproofed with metal and vinyl strips. Most replacement windows on the market are constructed of aluminum with a baked-on finish that requires no maintenance. When you purchase a window from the lumberyard or from a local representative of one of the major window manufacturers, you will be buying the entire frame and sash, complete with glazing and hardware. The window will be ready to install; all you have to do is provide the rough opening in the wall. The manufacturer’s literature will include all the available stock sizes and types. Be sure to have current catalogues on hand before selecting windows. (Check that the frame thickness conforms to the thickness of your wall.) In addition to the glazing options available (either single, double, or triple sheets of glass) and the frame material (wood, coated wood, or aluminum), you must select the appropriate type of window (double-hung, sliding, casement, or fixed). Window Operation The various window frames are named for the method by which they may be opened and closed—the single exception being the fixed window, which can't be opened. The movable members of the window frame are referred to as its sash. The fixed perimeter members are its frame. The various categories of window sash are identified below. The casement window is hinged on its vertical side and can be opened and closed by turning a crank. Casements are available as single units, in pairs, or in multiples. Some prefabricated bay- window units come as a fixed pane of glass flanked by two casements. Awning windows are similar to the casements but are hinged on top and open horizontally. The windows open outward, offering some rain protection when open. Although awning windows can be used by themselves, they are often grouped under (or over) large fixed panes of glass. The hopper window is similar to the awning window except that it's hinged at the bottom. Double-hung windows are the most traditional style available and were used in our oldest American houses. The window sashes are mounted on two sets of vertical tracks installed on the frame. The sashes move up and down past one another to open or close the window. In the large older versions of the double-hung window, the weight of the sash was offset by a counterbalance system hidden inside the window frame. In the contemporary version of the window, the sash is held in place by a spring system designed to facilitate the removal of the sash for easy cleaning. Unfortunately, these new windows don't employ counterweights. Sliding windows are similar to the double- hung windows in that the window is mounted on a set of tracks. In this case the windows move horizontally instead of vertically. Multipaned Windows Windows on historic houses have small panes of glass separated by narrow muntins. Small panes rather than large sheets of glass were used, not for aesthetic reasons, but because glass manufacturers had not yet developed the technology of plate glass. The popularity of multipaned windows endured long after technology was able to deliver large sheets of plate glass, and both styles of window are still being manufactured. When insulated glass was developed, window manufacturers continued to produce single-glazed small-paned windows but did not construct a double-glazed version. (One would guess that the thicker windows did not look right in the thin muntin tracery.) Instead, the major manufacturers developed a lightweight plastic inset which fits over a large panel of glass in almost any size or style of standard window. The plastic inset mimics the tracery of the small-paned window, but is really a poor substitute. If double-glazed small-paned windows are a must, there are manufacturers who will custom-make the windows (and doors) for you. Be advised that the muntins between the double-glazed panels may be much thicker than the narrow muntins that support single thick nesses of glass. What’s more, the windows, being custom-made, are more expensive. Sliding Glass Doors Sliding glass doors are like sliding windows in that they move horizontally on twin sets of tracks. The doors come in a variety of widths starting with two-paneled doors about 5’ wide with one fixed panel and the other operable. Sliding doors are also available in triple units up to 12’ wide. In the triple varieties, the center section is operable and the two flanking sections are fixed. DOORS Wooden solid-core flush doors are smooth- faced and are manufactured by gluing two veneers of wood to solid wood blocks or bonded wood chips. Metal doors are made of pressed sheets of metal filled with rigid insulation material. Metal doors have the advantage of not expanding and contracting with the temperature changes as do wooden doors. Except in the mildest climates, all exterior doors should be weather- proofed with thin strips of metal and insulating material to prevent the infiltration of cold air and wind-driven rain. If you are thinking about a new front door, check the codes to determine if there are any limitations in location, size, or materials. For instance, if you live in an apartment house, you will probably be required to install a fire-rated metal door between hail and apartment. The door will have to swing in so as not to block the corridor. In addition, check the codes before permanently removing any doors to the outside. Some codes mandate at least two means of egress from an apartment or house. It is tempting to convert the mudroom into a shelf-lined pantry, but be sure you have a legal alternate means of egress in case of fire if you intend to block the existing door. In addition, many municipalities require that both exterior and interior doors be wide enough to provide access for a wheelchair. Check the building codes to determine if your renovation must be accessible to the disabled and what other requirements must be met. Doors can be classified by the way they are opened, the materials they are constructed from, and /or their design. Exterior Doors Doors that separate the inside of the house from the outside are generally made of solid wood. Panel doors are constructed of wood sections about 1 thick called stiles, which frame in- dented, thinner wood panels. Many panel doors have tempered glass sheets in place of wood panels in the stiles. French doors are constructed like windows, containing wood stiles on all four sides and muntins separating the glass inserts. Most French doors are manufactured either with single sheets of plate glass or with tempered glass (a manufactured product that makes glass stronger and more resistant to shattering). It is possible to order custom-made French doors with insulating glass in place of regular glass. Interior Doors Doors used inside your house or apartment may be either hinged, folding, sliding, pocket, or accordion-pleated. The hinged door is most commonly used between rooms and on closets. Solid-core flush doors are recommended for use between rooms for their greater durability and sound-insulating qualities. Hollow-core flush doors, consisting of an interior of honeycombed wood strips covered by a veneer of plywood, are recommended for closets, but can also be used between rooms. Paneled doors, consisting of thin solid pieces of plywood framed by heavier members, are recommended for closets and between rooms where a more traditional look is desired. Bi-fold doors are folding doors and are often used for closets because they permit a large opening to be exposed while using a minimal amount of floor space. Each door has a hinge in the center and slides on a track. The individual panels are usually hollow-core flush doors, but can be solid, paneled, or louvered. Sliding doors are also often used for closets. The doors don't take any room from the space they are opening into and therefore are preferred to folding doors if space is at a premium. They are hung from a metal track screwed into the upper frame. The doors are arranged on a double track so that they slide past each other. Pocket doors are hollow-core, solid-core, or paneled doors that are mounted on a track and are designed to slide into a concealed pocket in the wall. The doors are completely hidden when open, making the archway between two rooms look permanently open. Pocket doors are extremely useful in situations where a hinged open door would take up a lot of needed space or would block traffic flow. They are very handy for rooms that will require privacy only occasionally, such as a family room that will be used as a guest room every so often. Two pocket doors can be used in the opening that separates the living room from the dining room if one of those rooms must be used on occasion for quiet pursuits. If you are considering pocket doors, be sure that the walls on either side of the doors are at least as wide as the doors. Many hardware manufacturers have special prefabricated assemblies for pocket doors so that the wall thickness need not exceed the usual 4¾” (3½” for the stud thickness and 5/8” thick gypsum board on each side). Accordion doors aren't often seen in residences, but sometimes can be put to good use. They are used in the same general situations where pocket doors would be used. Although not as handsome as pocket doors, accordion doors are considerably less expensive and can be used in locations where the wall space required for the pockets does not exist. Although doors can be obtained in a variety of materials, wooden doors are the most commonly used in residential architecture. Doors for interior purposes, such as closet doors, do come in metal and in vinyl-coated aluminum varieties, but we don't recommend them because the metal is too thin and flimsy. One good bang can change its shape or mar its appearance. Most doors are 6’-S” high and come in a variety of standard widths. The front door is usually 3’ wide and 1 thick. The doors that separate rooms are 2’-6” wide and 1 thick. It isn't unusual to design the door to the bathroom to be 2’ wide, but it's not recommended, since the opening is too small. Doors, both interior and exterior, may be bought “pre-hung,” which means that the door- frame and hinges are preassembled. These doors, although more expensive, save a good deal of labor. They are particularly advantageous for exterior doors because they come weatherproofed, which is a tricky operation to do yourself. *Check code requirements for minimum door widths. Garage Doors The most commonly used garage door is the over head type composed of several hinged sections that roll up to the ceiling on tr4cks. The doors maybe operated manually or by a remote-control device that opens the door without your having to leave the car. The doors come in heights of 6’-6” and 7’ and are usually 1 thick. A single- car garage may be equipped with a door that's 8’ or 9’ wide. Double doors are 16’ wide. Although they are available in both wood and metal, we prefer the wooden doors. HARDWARE Hardware includes locks, latches, and hinges. Because the hardware is such a visible and integral part of the renovation, it's important to select these items for their appearance as well as for their functional qualities. Most lumberyards and hardware stores have a complete collection of finish hardware, doorknobs, and latches and should provide a sufficient selection. If you are looking for unusual hardware, try the specialized magazines as well as Sweet’s Catalogue for advertisements and manufacturers’ literature. Much of the hardware can be obtained through mail order. Hinges Doors swing on hinges in order to open or close. A hinge is made up of two leaves, which are joined together by a pin. They are available in several types. Some hinges are completely concealed, others are totally exposed, and there are still others in which only the pin is visible (butt hinges). A mortised hinge is one in which the leaves are notched into the wood. When the leaves are visible, it's called a surface hinge. Wrought steel, brass, bronze, and stainless steel are some of the materials in which hinges are available. Stainless steel provides the strongest, most durable, and most corrosion-resistant hinge at a relatively high price. In terms of size, hinges vary from 2” to 6”. The size is relative to the weight and the thickness of the door. Hinges are generally mounted on doors 5” from the head and 10” from the floor. Should a third hinge be necessary, it's placed at the center point between the top and bottom one. Locks and Latches Locks and latches are used to hold doors in place and provide security. When a door is closed, the latch automatically slides into position. The locking device is called a bolt. It may be manually operated (dead bolt) or be set automatically (latch bolt). Locks and latches are often combined into one unit. The most common locks and latches used in residential construction are of the mortised and bored-in type. (“Mortised” and “bored-in” refer to the method of installation.) In the mortise type, the unit is concealed in the edge of the door. Its installation involves carving a hole in the core of the door into which the unit will fit. The bored-in type (whether cylindrical or tubular) is easiest to install, requiring only the boring of two holes. One other type of lock and latch deserves mention: the unit lock. This lock is very simple to install, requiring only a notch or cutout in the door. The unit is merely slipped into the notch. In addition, unit locks are factory- assembled, eliminating much fussing on the job. Mortise-type integral locks and latches may also be purchased factory-assembled. Lock and latch mechanisms vary according to the functions they must serve within the house. E.g., the lock and latch combination used in a bedroom or bathroom door isn't the same as that used for a closet door. While the one for the bedroom or bathroom will need a latch bolt operated by a knob from either side and should be capable of being locked or unlocked by a push button or a turn from the inside, the closet will only need a latch bolt that's operable at all times by a knob on either side. Care must be taken to select the right mechanism for the specific job. For added security you may consider installing a dead bolt in addition to the combined lock and latch on your exterior door. A dead bolt consists of a shaft of high-strength steel installed on (or in) the door that slips into an armored strike plate on (or in) the doorframe. A dead bolt is more difficult to “pick” than a latch. There are more sophisticated locks on the market if you require greater security. Check manufacturers’ literature or talk to your hardware merchant. It is a good idea to purchase all of your locks and dead bolts from the same manufacturer and supplier so that all can be keyed alike. This eliminates the need to carry around several different keys. Locks and latches are available in a wide range of materials, including stainless steel, brass, bronze, and aluminum. The visible components, such as knobs and lever handles, may be obtained in a variety of finishes and designs ranging from bright to satin and from contemporary to traditional. SKYLIGHTS Skylights, originally used to light the interior space of factories, are popular for residential use. The skylight allows for the dramatic introduction of natural light into any room in the house that's directly under the roof. A skylight may be constructed by simply framing glass between the rafters or roof joints. This kind of skylight, although inexpensive, is difficult to waterproof. Care must be taken to properly construct the sky light so that water is shed from it and does not collect around the edges where it can leak. The best bet for a renovation or a new extension is a prefabricated skylight, shaped like a pyramid or dome. It is easy to install and is usually leakproof. The bubbles are available in many sizes. These units come complete and are designed to shed water. All that must be provided is the rough opening. In addition, there are skylights that can be opened for ventilation and varieties that have built-in fans and shading devices. 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