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INTRO -- PROJECT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE OVERVIEW This introductory section of the Practice Guide presents an overview of the fundamental concepts and terminology used in the performance of professional project management. It includes foundation information in the following topic areas: Project Management in the Organization:
PROJECT MANAGEMENT IN THE ORGANIZATION There are three prominent types of activities found in the project management environment: project management, program management, and portfolio management. In some organizations and industries, the terms project and program management are sometimes used interchangeably. In others, there are efforts made to distinguish between the two. Similarly, program management is sometimes used to imply portfolio management, which is not an accurate characterization. The following subsections examine these terms and their use in the project management environment. Project Management Organizations undertake projects as a means to implement technical solutions and to achieve desired business results. The project is a work effort of limited duration and defined scope, performed for the purpose of producing required deliverables and achieving specified objectives. The Project Management Institute's A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK) provides the following definition: Project -- a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product, service, or result. It follows that project management is an effort that applies knowledge and skill to achieve project objectives; produce project deliverables for a customer; and manage the people, processes, and tools in the most effective and efficient manner possible within a given project management environment. To that purpose, the following are primary activities that highlight what project managers do when concepts of modern project management are applied:
This broad scope of responsibilities for the project manager is brought into perspective by the project management methodology that is implemented within the organization. Program Management When there is a myriad of project activity in the organization, some intermediate level of oversight and management of similar or related projects may be desired. This is often the responsibility of the project management office (PMO), or it may be a responsibility assigned to program managers who look after high-level aspects of projects under their purview. This is not distinctly project management; however, many aspects of traditional project management may be used or adapted for this role. The program manager generally over sees a collection of projects for the purpose of managing their combined performance, and usually the performance of each project manager as well. To that end, a program is a collection of related work efforts (projects) that are brought together and managed for contrast, comparison, and combined success within the relevant organization. Along this line, the Project Management Institute's A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge provides this definition: Program -- a group of related projects managed in a coordinated way to obtain benefits and control not available from managing them individually. Programs may include elements of related work outside of the scope of the discrete projects in the program. Thereby, program management is the coordinated management of a more-or-less related collection of projects that are grouped by having the same customer, the same central authority (e.g., PMO or business unit), or an alignment with the same purpose, product line, or type of work performed. Programs are sometimes represented by ongoing, lengthy efforts, but in their own right, programs are not merely larger projects. In contrast to project management, here is a list of key activities that represent what program managers do:
See the discussion later in this introduction section about the PMO for a more detailed examination of centralized program management concepts. Portfolio Management Project portfolio management monitors and uses results from project management and program management, but distinguishes itself because of the business nature of the effort and inherent requirement for executive and senior manager-level involvement in the management process. More precisely, the Project Management Institute's A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge provides this definition: Portfolio--a collection of projects or programs and other work that are grouped together to facilitate effective management of that work to meet strategic business objectives. The projects or programs of the portfolio may not necessarily be interdependent or directly related. Therefore, portfolio management is the oversight of a collection of projects or programs selected and owned by an executive or executive control board and grouped for purposes of monitoring and managing their contribution to business performance. When it exists, the PMO normally will be involved, perhaps even leading the portfolio management effort. However, project portfolio management decisions should be made by those executives having responsibility for achieving business objectives within the organization. Since executives have responsibility for achieving business objectives, and to the extent that projects are a means toward business fulfillment, project portfolio management represents executive involvement in project management with emphasis on oversight of business performance. See more guidance in the Portfolio Management practice. Project portfolio management generally includes the following activities that can be performed by executives with the support of others in the project management environment:
Project resource allocation--a decision or approval made by the relevant executive (or executive control board) about the number of resources to be allocated to the project; specific resource assignments normally managed by the PMO, program manager, and project manager in conjunction with project managers' requests for resources Project portfolio reviews--executive review for project continuation, termination, or placement on hold, per established review points in the portfolio management process; Project portfolio closeout--per individual project closeout activities reported to the executive or executive control board, with administrative actions managed by the PMO; Project portfolio management relies on input from project managers in the form of status and progress reports. To that end, some elements of portfolio management could be a part of the project management methodology that is used--primarily to ensure that the project manager (and for that matter the project team) has awareness of strategic business interests and objectives. PROJECT MANAGEMENT LIFE CYCLE The project management life cycle specifies the sequence and flow of progressive project management activities that are usually aligned within distinctive phases of the project. Process phases provide a high-level perspective of advancement through the life cycle and a general indication of project management progress and accomplishments. Within each process phase, project management process activities specify the actions to be accomplished, and they are prescribed to provide for consistent and repeatable application by all users. Defined process steps for project management are incorporated into each activity to provide more detailed guidance (i.e., what to do and what not to do) regarding the accomplishment of project management activities. The project management life cycle provides step-by-step guidance for performing project management activities. As a process, the project management life cycle is essentially the methodology used to manage projects, and the two terms are often used interchangeably. Life Cycle Phases Table 1 presents a generic four-phase project management life cycle. It depicts the four phases of the life cycle-Profile, Plan, Perform, and Post, which are the names of the phases in the ProjectPerfect methodology. The table also lists some high-level activities that are commonly associated with each project management phase. The complete list of ProjectPerfect life cycle activities is located in the Process Guide. However, you can refer to the foregoing table to see the nature of activities that are normally associated with each successive project management phase. Using this generic perspective, the phase names can and do vary across organizations, industries, and technical or professional specialties that use a project management life cycle model. Here are a few examples of alternate life cycle phase names that are commonly used:
Life Cycle Models A life cycle model is a way to depict the process flow and general relationships of the prescribed project management process steps. Descriptions of the waterfall diagram and the matrix diagram life cycle models follow. Waterfall Diagram The waterfall diagram is a common life cycle model that is used, in concept, in many organizations that have formal and even informal project management practices. It depicts a progression of project management activities from the start of a project through project completion. Using the four-phase life cycle described earlier, the waterfall diagram shows how the activities of these phases normally relate to each other. In this depiction, the four key life cycle phases are noticeably overlapping. The project begins in the Profile Phase, and project management work products and output from the activities of that phase "fall" into the Plan Phase for additional use and refinement or for informational purposes. Similarly, project management work products and output from the Plan Phase "fall" into the Perform Phase, where documents such as project plans are used to guide project work performance. This "falling" is depicted by the heavy arrows. A few thin arrows are also depicted to indicate that there can be selective flow of information or developed material backward (upward) to a previous phase when conditions warrant it. For example, when changes occur during project performance, this might necessitate some re-planning. The diagram shows that this requirement would be returned to the Plan Phase, where project planning guidance is presumably available for any further project planning that is conducted. In turn, the updated plan then "falls" again to the Perform Phase, where it’s used to manage the revised approach to work performance. On rare occasions, it might occur that information or material in the Perform Phase is sent all the way back to the Profile Phase, where mostly pre planning activities take place. Then again, it’s sometimes necessary to revisit such things as the project definition, business case, or project charter. The Post Phase is also depicted in a manner that shows final actions that will complete the project. As a matter of routine, it’s not really common for information or materials to be returned to an earlier project phase in the midst of project closeout. However, it could occur, and this model acknowledges that possibility with a dashed arrow. One notable exception would be when the Post Phase includes "customer acceptance" activities. Then, it would be more likely for materials in the Post Phase to be returned to the previous phase as a matter of fine-tuning a deliverable or adjusting it to conform to last-minute customer requests. The waterfall diagram is a high-level, phase depiction of project activity flow. It’s advantageous when the project management methodology also contains a process flow at lower activity levels. Such a depiction shows how specific methodology process steps relate to others, and this also usually provides some indication of precedent project management actions within each project management phase. An activity-level flowchart for the ProjectPRISM life cycle is located in the Process Guide. However, it’s the matrix life cycle model that served as the primary basis for constructing the ProjectPRISM project management methodology. --- Generic Project Management Activities by Phase: |Profile|
|Plan|
|Perform|
|Post|
----- -- 1 Waterfall diagram life cycle model: Profile: Plan Perform Post INITIATE; PLAN (DESIGN-DEVELOP); IMPLEMENT (DELIVER-INSTALL-TEST); CLOSEOUT; Project Start Project Completion Matrix Diagram The matrix diagram is an alternative life cycle model that can be considered for contrast and the potential benefits it can pro vide within the project management environment. It applies the concept that there is one process for each primary project management activity, and users can initially use and then return to each process, as needed, to accomplish prescribed project management activities. A simple depiction of the matrix diagram life cycle model is presented. As with references to "matrix" concepts, the matrix diagram life cycle model provides for bringing a project management activity or process step into play when it’s pre scribed by the methodology flow, or as otherwise needed to achieve project management objectives. That is, the matrix diagram promotes a prescribed sequence of activities to be performed, but each activity is performed only in its process step. Therefore, if an activity needs to be repeated or recurs during the project, you simply return to that process step for guidance and tools needed to complete that step. Another feature of the matrix diagram is that it associates project management activities with key performance areas of project management-in the foregoing diagram, these elements are located in the left-hand column. This aligns each of the project management process steps with the project performance element to which it’s normally most closely associated. The diagram also shows that there are "numbered" project management activities in each phase, and while the depiction shows only one number (e.g., C-2) as an example, there are in fact several numbers-one for each of the process steps in the phase. Here are a few brief examples of how the matrix diagram guides project management. First, if you have to conduct planning in association with acquiring staff for the project, you would go to the S-2 process step. If you need to prepare a business report associated with project performance, you would reference the B-3 process step. And, if there is a need to conduct an end-of-project customer satisfaction survey, you would use guidance in the C-4 process step. The Process Guide does provide a flow or sequence of activities such as that associated with the waterfall diagram, but it also offers the characteristics of the matrix diagram life cycle model. The six project performance areas presented in the diagram are described in the Process Guide. --2 Matrix diagram life cycle model. PERFORMANCE AREA PROFILE PLAN PERFORMPOST --3 Technical life cycle "hooking" or "linking." PROJECT MANAGEMENT LIFE CYCLE (STANDARD METHODOLOGY); IT DEPARTMENT-TECHNICAL LIFE CYCLE (SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT); CONSTRUCTION DEPARTMENT-TECHNICAL LIFE CYCLE (CONSTRUCTION); HR DEPARTMENT-TECHNICAL LIFE CYCLE (CAREER PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT) Perform Project Risk Assessment; Assess software design risk; Assess software development risk; Assess building design -- Assess building construction; Perform Project Risk Assessment Technical Process Integration Many professionals recognize that the primary purpose of technical processes is to ensure that a quality technical product or solution is developed and conveyed to the customer. In contrast, project management processes are used to ensure that the project is successful in terms of achieving its business objectives (usually objectives dealing with cost, schedule, and resource utilization). Therefore, organizations that have existing technical methodologies will need to find a balance in process content to achieve both technical and project management objectives. Technical methodologies such as software development life cycles (SDLCs) are sometimes introduced and used for project management purposes. This is generally accepted as long as the essential activities of project management are adequately included in the technical process. However, closer examination may reveal that technical methodologies don’t always provide for comprehensive project management coverage. A solution to this dilemma lies in creating an alignment or integration of the technical process with the pending or established project management methodology used in the organization. An organization may have a range of business units in which different types of projects are conducted using different technical processes, usually along department lines. Each department, then, would select and use their preferred "technical methodology," but for organizational consistency, each technical effort should also be aligned with the pre scribed processes and activities presented in the standard project management methodology. Ideally, the project management methodology is implemented as primary guidance for the project management effort, and technical processes and tools are introduced, as needed, to perform technical elements of work. In some cases, however, the technical processes are so well established in the organization that a more direct type of process alignment is needed. To create a more direct process alignment, it’s not uncommon for an organization to construct a six-, seven-, or eight-phase life cycle as a means of delineating technical activities and integrating the technical process with project management methodology content. Diagram presents a depiction of "hooking" or "linking" technical processes with the project management methodology, and illustrates a few examples for different "technical" departments. The top lines of the diagram show how the organization's project management methodology serves as a standard, umbrella-type approach to project management, with "hooks" or "links" to preferred technical methods integrated into the life cycle process. In this simple example, the methodology calls for a project risk assessment in the plan phase. Each department (technical discipline) then performs that project risk assessment using project management methodology guidance, plus any technical risk assessment guidance called for by the technical methods that are used in the respective department. Notice that the plan phase of the standard methodology is further delineated for use within departments having technical specialties. You may also notice that the foregoing sample shows the HR department to essentially use the standard project management process; a department such as HR would not necessarily have a distinct "technical" methodology of its own to follow. This allows the methodology to be applied to all aspects of the business-even business units that have no particular technical focus. The standard methodology pro vides for the default process guidance in the absence of any technical-specific process guidance. Business Process Integration It’s sometimes said that project management is business management to the extent that projects are the means to achieve organizational interests and strategic business objectives. To that end, project management processes are inherently aligned with business processes. It’s a matter of discernment whether or not the business processes that are used also adequately support project management interests and purposes. However, that is an aspect of business that should be examined from time to time. Fundamentally, business management processes should be the same ones used for project management as a matter of business efficiency. This includes such processes as those used for contract management, quality assurance, vendor and con tractor management, internal reporting, and an additional array of related processes to be found within the organization. Ideally, the methodology implemented for project management will be a major influence on the associated business processes that are used in the project management environment and elsewhere in the organization. The integration of project and business management processes is a desired condition in the organization. THE PROFESSIONAL PROJECT MANAGER Simply stated, projects require project management. Project management, in turn, requires individuals with sufficient skill, knowledge, and experience to oversee the project effort. In today's challenging business environment, project management is no longer a secondary skill or a secondary work effort. This section examines the preparation and credentials needed for leaders in today's project management environment. Project Manager Qualifications The achievement of project manager qualifications helps the organization to align the skill and capability of individuals with the management requirements of each project. The entry-level project manager will normally take on smaller projects or be assigned a role under a more seasoned project manager or mentor. Conversely, individuals with broader experience and advanced skill are normally assigned to manage larger, higher business-value projects. To this end, project managers and their organizations should consider professional qualification in three particular areas: education and training, experience, and certification. Project Manager Education and Training Individuals, for the most part, pursue education and training credentials to achieve qualification in a technical or professional discipline of their interest. When deemed appropriate to certain curricula, practical elements of project management may be included in those courses of study. In other programs, however, project management topics may not be specifically covered. As well, some project managers may not have completed a formal degree program as a basis for their work in project management. Therefore, as an organization establishes a professional approach to project management, it may be appropriate to consider providing formal training for all individuals involved in project management as a means to:
As a matter of project manager qualification, the organization should evaluate its needs and specify preferred education and training requirements for its project managers. It’s generally accepted that a project manager should have at least a basic degree in science, technology, or business as a prerequisite credential for leading a project. Some organizations may even want to consider individuals with basic or advanced degrees in project management, as are currently offered by many colleges and universities. At the same time, organizations should not dismiss those individuals who bring a combination of less formal technical training and project management experience as valuable credentials for project manager qualification. See more guidance on this topic in the Project Staff Training and Development practice. Project Manager Experience The experience credential is closely aligned with individual skill development and competency in project management. In general, as an individual advances through a career associated with project management, experience increases from simple, lower-value projects to more complex, high-value projects and even programs. Experience is achieved when individuals apply skill and knowledge, and then receive personal confirmation or indications of the accomplishments achieved-learning what works well and what needs improvement. Experience also results as skill and knowledge are gained from the variety of work that is performed when advancing from small to large project management efforts. It also represents the individual's attitude toward the pursuit of higher levels of project management responsibility and the personal effort needed to qualify for the broader project management assignments that provide that experience. As a matter of project manager qualification, the organization should prescribe or align any desired levels of project manager experience with the prominent types or classifications of projects that are pursued within the organization. This qualification factor may be combined with education and training when considering individual project managers for assignment or for career advancement. Project Manager Certification The certification credential is further recognition and acknowledgment of project manager professional qualifications. Certification of professionals in the project management environment is an excellent way to promote a consistent level of project management performance within the organization. It’s usually based on standards selected to guide the development and implementation of project management concepts and practices. Those same standards can be used to measure and manage individual professional growth and capability in project management. A certification program, at a minimum, provides a snapshot at a point in time of individual qualification to perform all or portions of the job at hand. If the certification requires follow on updates, or recertification at intervals, that snapshot is extended across time to add even more validity to individual skill, knowledge, and competency. A certification program, when using aggregated results of all project managers, may also provide an indication of overall organizational capability in project management. As a matter of project manager qualification, project management certification programs come in two primary forms-external certification and internal certification. The organization can consider the benefits of each as a basis for defining the type of certification that will be used. In some organizations, both forms of certification are used. External certification serves to obtain a third-party validation of professional competency, usually based on examination against widely accepted standards. An internal certification program allows the organization to consider industry-specific issue s and requirements, as well as applicable organizational and business interests, in the certification of its project managers. Certification is normally the final credential and indicator of qualification level of a project manager. It’s awarded upon examination of individual skill, knowledge, and competency associated with experience, education, and training, and some certifications will also consider the individual's current professional involvement in advancing project management as a professional discipline and potential for future advancement. Project Manager Responsibility The fully qualified project manager can have a broad range of responsibilities on a complex or otherwise mainstream project in the organization. Four primary areas of project man ager responsibility are summarized in the following text. In particular, these responsibility areas are also indicators of the types of skill and knowledge that individuals should pursue and develop through training and education, or through other means such as mentoring, in order to demonstrate project management competency using modern project management practices. Project Oversight Responsibility:
Technical Oversight Responsibility:
Business Oversight Responsibility:
Interpersonal Skill/Staff Management Responsibility:
The extent to which an individual project manager has and uses all of the aforementioned capabilities is essentially a factor of organizational culture-usually determined by the extent to which the organization has integrated business and project management. Project Management Advancement Model (Career Path) The professional project management advancement model defines who's who in the project management environment. The most fundamental model is one that designates individuals as project managers within the organization. If no other position is recognized in the organization, the project manager designation must be examined for use and assigned to those individuals deemed qualified to lead project efforts. This title or designation can differentiate levels of qualification based on responsibility, seniority, or experience, but the designation implies one thing: qualified to manage projects in this organization! Another fundamental consideration of the project management advancement model is that it can specify the progression of advancement for individuals in the project management environment. The model suggests that there is a variety of individuals who work on professional project management activities, and they should have designations aligned with their responsibilities. This concept of designating individuals according to the progression specified by a project management advancement model can be examined with reference to the following brief list of considerations. The list examines how project team members and other project stakeholders may be gaining professional project management experience and, therefore, will have some professional career path alignment if they: Participate in project planning activities. ++They need to convey technical expertise, and they also need to identify technical solution cost, schedule, and resource utilization. Prepare or compile project status or progress reports. ++They need to under stand project status and correctly interpret conditions to properly structure project report content. Lead or perform technical or business activities associated with projects. They need to recognize how their activities are integrated and affect project performance outcomes, and be able to apply specified project performance tracking and control procedures. Manage resources used in the project environment. ++They need to know how resources are identified, assigned, and used on projects, and they need to understand their own responsibilities for resource commitments to the project effort. Report to a project manager. ++They need to have at least a basic understanding of their reporting official's professional project management role and responsibilities. Hold designated responsibility in the project management methodology. They need to recognize how their contributions are integrated into the overall project management effort, and know how to apply the preferred project management practices. Contribute professional business expertise to project management. They need to know how and when to provide timely and meaningful input on such topics as legal advice, finance and accounting guidance, customer service management, and contract management. Hold business responsibility for project success. They need to understand fundamental concepts of modern project management as a means for evaluating project and project manager performance, and for applying performance results to business decisions. The organization should develop a project management career advancement model (career path) as a means to align roles and responsibilities in the project management environment. This model should represent the various preferred position designations that will be used in the organization to define individual participation in association with project efforts. The following are suggested project management advancement levels for consideration by the organization when defining roles and responsibility designations in the project management environment. Next: Part 2>>
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